Steve mentioned the Imjin War in which Japan invaded Korea twice in 1592 and 1597. When Toyotomi Hideyoshi became the ultimate ruler of Japan after unifying the country, he embarked on his unthinkable dream of invading Ming China through Korea.

There is no established explanation as to why Hideyoshi chose to conquer China. Perhaps, it was simply to acquire wealth and land in China. His military plan was not an impetuous one but was well prepared, for instance it included the mobilization of troops, building ships, collecting foodstuffs and so on. The plan also included erecting a large castle, the nearest to Korea, on the northern part of Kyushu as a base for launching the invasion.

How did the war evolve? Initially, Korea was taken aback and pushed towards the north. Then Ming China sent troops to help Korea (as its dependency), resulting in a stalemate on the battlefield. Whereas on the sea, Korea under a competent admiral by the name of Yi Sun-sin (as depicted above) who commanded well-armored “turtle ships” defeated the Japanese navy on several occasions.  In a timely manner, a truce was agreed. 

But the war started again in 1597. It was said that Korean and Ming forces were mostly on the offensive. The second war ended abruptly when Hideyoshi died in 1598. This led to a complete withdrawal of the Japanese troops.

What were the consequences of the war? First and foremost, it caused havoc among the Korean people. Figures vary but between 20,000 and 100,000 plus Koreans including craftsmen and artisans were taken to Japan as prisoners and slaves. Incidentally, they became instrumental to the development of the Japanese porcelain and craftwork industry.

The war exacerbated the decline of the Ming China which was overrun by the Qing dynasty in the mid-17^th Century. Also, the war caused a serious divide among the Japanese warlords (for those on the battlefields versus those supporting from home). This eventually led to a decisive battle between Tokugawa Ieyasu (who stood on the side of those who fought) and those headed by Hideyoshi's lieutenants. By winning the battle, Tokugawa succeeded in forging his own shogunate.        

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Frankly speaking it was quite a surprise to hear Steve mention the Khmelnitsky Uprising of 1648-1657. I did not know anything about it; but it had a profound implication for the history of Ukraine. What can be more appropriate to discuss today? 

During the mid-17^th Century, today’s Ukraine was under the control of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of the local leaders by the name of Bohdan Khmelnitsky, a Zaporozhian Cossack, rose up against the commonwealth. Steve explained people’s grievances such as social and economic discrimination, religious tensions (Orthodox Cossack vs. Catholic Polish elites) among others as background to the revolution.

Being a skilled strategist and charismatic leader, Khmelnitsky managed to rally the Cossacks and allied with Crimean Tartars in achieving many stunning victories. The rebellion spread to the Ukrainian peasantry and was also a social rebellion. As a result, Khmelnitsky succeeded in creating the Cossack Hetmanate in Ukraine. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated. So, Khmelnitsky was credited with laying the foundation for a Ukrainian national identity. However, it must be said that the revolution was both infamous and deplorable in that it inflicted brutal atrocities on both sides.  

Did you know that the Cossack Hetmanate eventually came under the strong influence, followed by the dominance, of the Russians, notably under Catherine the Great in the late 18^th Century. Isn’t it a kind of déjà vu for the current Russian invasion of Ukraine? 

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2025 seems to be extremely unpredictable due largely to the behavior of “America First” Trump. Steve first mentioned that he would hope for the earliest possible end to the war in Ukraine.

As is well known Trump has said many times that he would end the war on day one of his administration. Many people have doubtful opinions about this boast. But because of Trump’s unpredictable nature, things might turn out for the better, by putting pressure bluntly on both Russia and Ukraine. Surely, brokering peace in Ukraine will show off Trump’s diplomatic skill. Hopefully, Trump will also exert his efforts to bring the earliest possible peace to Gaza as well. 

Secondly, Steve said that it would be important to avoid another pandemic, counting on the advancement of science. In this respect, what we have painfully learned from the latent COVID-19 pandemic must be fully utilized.

Next came environmental issues. Once again, a concerted effort is needed to cope with them. We have to wait and see how Trump will react to these impending issues.

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